Abstract
The formation of porosity is a major challenge in any composite manufacturing process, particularly in the absence of vacuum assistance. Highly localized injection of polymer matrix into regions of interest in a dry preform is a route to manufacturing multi-matrix fiber-reinforced composites with high filler concentrations, which are otherwise difficult to achieve. Unlike traditional composites, such multi-matrix fiber-reinforced composite systems, which combine multiple resins in continuous form, offer improved structural performance around stress concentrators and multifunctional capabilities. As the process lacks vacuum assistance, porosity becomes a primary issue to be addressed. This paper presents a rheo-kinetic coupled rapid consolidation procedure for optimizing the quality of localized matrix patches. The procedure involves manufacturing trials and analytical consolidation models to determine the best processing program for minimal voidage in the patch. The results provide a step toward an efficient manufacturing process for the optimal design of multi-matrix composites without the need for complex vacuum bag arrangements, thus reducing cost and time while opening avenues to improve overall composite performance.
Issue Section:
Research Papers
Keywords:
multi-matrix composites,
analytical modeling of resin flow,
voids,
matrix hybridization,
advanced materials and processing,
non-traditional manufacturing processes
Topics:
Composite materials,
Flow (Dynamics),
Manufacturing,
Resins,
Viscosity,
Preforms,
Vacuum,
Textiles,
Pressure,
Fibers
References
1.
Swolfs
, Y.
, Verpoest
, I.
, and Gorbatikh
, L.
, 2019
, “Recent Advances in Fibre-Hybrid Composites: Materials Selection, Opportunities and Applications
,” Int. Mater. Rev.
, 64
(4
), pp. 181
–215
. 2.
Gnaba
, I.
, Legrand
, X.
, Wang
, P.
, and Soulat
, D.
, 2019
, “Through-The-Thickness Reinforcement for Composite Structures: A Review
,” J. Ind. Text.
, 49
(1
), pp. 71
–96
. 3.
Qian
, H.
, Greenhalgh
, E. S.
, Shaffer
, M. S. P.
, and Bismarck
, A.
, 2010
, “Carbon Nanotube-Based Hierarchical Composites: A Review
,” J. Mater. Chem.
, 20
(23
), p. 4751
. 4.
Valorosi
, F.
, De Meo
, E.
, Blanco-Varela
, T.
, Martorana
, B.
, Veca
, A.
, Pugno
, N.
, Kinloch
, I. A.
, et al, 2020
, “Graphene and Related Materials in Hierarchical Fiber Composites: Production Techniques and Key Industrial Benefits
,” Compos. Sci. Technol.
, 185
, p. 107848
. 5.
Ivanov
, D. S.
, White
, J. A. P.
, Hendry
, W.
, Mahadik
, Y.
, Minett
, V.
, Patel
, H.
, and Ward
, C.
, 2015
, “Stabilising Textile Preforms by Means of Liquid Resin Print: A Feasibility Study
,” Adv Manuf.: Polym. Compos. Sci.
, 1
(1
), pp. 26
–35
. 6.
Turk
, M. A.
, Vermes
, B.
, Thompson
, A. J.
, Belnoue
, J. P. H.
, Hallett
, S. R.
, and Ivanov
, D. S.
, 2020
, “Mitigating Forming Defects by Local Modification of Dry Preforms
,” Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf.
, 128
, p. 105643
. 7.
Ivanov
, D. S.
, Le Cahain
, Y. M.
, Arafati
, S.
, Dattin
, A.
, Ivanov
, S. G.
, and Aniskevich
, A.
, 2016
, “Novel Method for Functionalising and Patterning Textile Composites: Liquid Resin Print
,” Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf.
, 84
, pp. 175
–185
. 8.
Stanier
, D.
, Radhakrishnan
, A.
, Gent
, I.
, Roy
, S. S.
, Hamerton
, I.
, Potluri
, P.
, Scarpa
, F.
, Shaffer
, M.
, and Ivanov
, D. S.
, 2019
, “Matrix-Graded and Fibre-Steered Composites to Tackle Stress Concentrations
,” Compos. Struct.
, 207
, pp. 72
–80
. 9.
Anthony
, D. B.
, Turk
, M. A.
, Nguyen
, S. N.
, Kucernak
, A. R.
, Shaffer
, M. S.
, Ivanov
, D. S.
, and S
, G. E.
, 2020
, “Formable Structures for Carbon Aerogel Infused Carbon Fibre Samples
,” Proceedings of ECCM19
, Nantes, France
, June 22–26
.10.
Fink
, B. K.
, McKnight
, S. H.
, and Gillespie
, J. W.
, 1998
, “Co-Injection Resin Transfer Molding for Optimization of Integral Armor
,” Proceedings of Army Science Conference
, Norfolk, VA
, June 12–15
, pp. 15
–17
.11.
Krollmann
, J.
, Alvarado
, C. S.
, Carqueville
, P.
, Snajdr
, R.
, Zaremba
, S.
, and Drechsler
, K.
, 2016
, “Hybrid-Matrix Processing: How to Co-Inject Multiple Resin Systems Into One Composite Part ?
,” ECCM17 -17th European Conference on Composite Materials
, Munich
, pp. 26
–30
.12.
Mehdikhani
, M.
, Gorbatikh
, L.
, Verpoest
, I.
, and Lomov
, S. V.
, 2019
, “Voids in Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Composites: A Review on Their Formation, Characteristics, and Effects on Mechanical Performance
,” J. Compos. Mater.
, 53
(12
), pp. 1579
–1669
. 13.
Leclerc
, J. S.
, and Ruiz
, E.
, 2008
, “Porosity Reduction Using Optimised Flow Velocity in Resin Transfer Molding
,” Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf.
, 39
(12
), pp. 1859
–1868
. 14.
Wood
, J. R.
, and Bader
, M. G.
, 1994
, “Void Control for Polymer-Matrix Composites (1): Theoretical and Experimental Methods for Determining the Growth and Collapse of Gas Bubbles
,” Compos. Manuf.
, 5
(3
), pp. 139
–147
. 15.
Bernet
, N.
, Michaud
, V.
, Bourban
, P. E.
, and Manson
, J. A. E.
, 1999
, “Impregnation Model for the Consolidation of Thermoplastic Composites Made From Commingled Yarns
,” J. Compos. Mater.
, 33
(8
), pp. 751
–772
. 16.
Zhang
, D.
, Heider
, D.
, and Gillespie
, J. W.
, 2017
, “Void Reduction of High-Performance Thermoplastic Composites via Oven Vacuum Bag Processing
,” J. Compos. Mater.
, 51
(30
), pp. 4219
–4230
. 17.
White
, S. R.
, and Kim
, Y. K.
, 1996
, “Staged Curing of Composite Materials
,” Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf.
, 27
(3
), pp. 219
–227
. 18.
Lundström
, T. S.
, 1997
, “Measurement of Void Collapse During Resin Transfer Moulding
,” Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf.
, 28
(3
), pp. 201
–214
. 19.
Pham
, X. T.
, and Trochu
, F.
, 1999
, “Simulation of Compression Resin Transfer Molding to Manufacture Thin Composite Shells
,” Polym. Compos.
, 20
(3
), pp. 436
–459
. 20.
Gutowski
, T. G.
, Cai
, Z.
, Bauer
, S.
, Boucher
, D.
, Kingery
, J.
, and Wineman
, S.
, 1987
, “Consolidation Experiments for Laminate Composites
,” J. Compos. Mater.
, 21
(7
), pp. 650
–669
. 21.
Koptelov
, A.
, Belnoue
, J. P. H.
, Georgilas
, I.
, Hallett
, S. R.
, and Ivanov
, D. S.
, 2022
, “Adaptive Real-Time Characterisation of Composite Precursors in Manufacturing
,” Front. Mater.
, 9
. 22.
Koptelov
, A.
, Belnoue
, J. P. H.
, Georgilas
, I.
, Hallett
, S. R.
, and Ivanov
, D. S.
, 2022
, “Revising Testing of Composite Precursors—A New Framework for Data Capture in Complex Multi-Material Systems
,” Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf.
, 152
, p. 106697
. 23.
Gutowski
, T. G.
, Morigaki
, T.
, and Cai
, Z.
, 1987
, “The Consolidation of Laminate Composites
,” J. Compos. Mater.
, 21
(2
), pp. 172
–188
. 24.
Hubert
, P.
, and Kratz
, J.
, 2021
, “Tool Interface Pressure During the Forming of Model Composite Corners
,” Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf.
, 151
, p. 106639
. 25.
Hubert
, P.
, and Poursartip
, A.
, 2001
, “Aspects of the Compaction of Composite Angle Laminates: An Experimental Investigation
,” J. Compos. Mater.
, 35
(1
), pp. 2
–26
. 26.
Hubert
, P.
, and Poursartip
, A.
, 1998
, “A Review of Flow and Compaction Modelling Relevant to Thermoset Matrix Laminate Processing
,” J. Reinf. Plast. Compos.
, 17
(4
), pp. 286
–318
. 27.
Roller
, M. B.
, 1975
, “Characterisation of the Time-Temperature-Viscosity Behavior of Curing B-Staged Epoxy Resin
,” Polym. Eng. Sci.
, 15
(6
), pp. 406
–414
. 28.
Williams
, M. L.
, Landel
, R. F.
, and Ferry
, J. D.
, 1955
, “The Temperature Dependence of Relaxation Mechanisms in Amorphous Polymers and Other Glass-Forming Liquids
,” J. Am. Chem. Soc.
, 77
(14
), pp. 3701
–3707
. 29.
Mijovic
, J.
, and Lee
, C. H.
, 1989
, “Modeling of Chemorheology of Thermoset Cure by Modified WLF Equation
,” J. Appl. Polym. Sci.
, 37
(4
), pp. 889
–900
. 30.
Karkanas
, P. I.
, and Partridge
, I. K.
, 2000
, “Cure Modeling and Monitoring of Epoxy/Amine Resin Systems. II. Network Formation and Chemoviscosity Modeling
,” J. Appl. Polym. Sci.
, 77
(10
), pp. 2178
–2188
. 31.
Castro
, J. M.
, and Macosko
, C. W.
, 1982
, “Studies of Mold Filling and Curing in the Reaction Injection Molding Process
,” AIChE J.
, 28
(2
), pp. 250
–260
. 32.
Kiuna
, N.
, Lawrence
, C. J.
, Fontana
, Q. P. V.
, Lee
, P. D.
, Selerland
, T.
, and Spelt
, P. D. M.
, 2002
, “A Model for Resin Viscosity During Cure in the Resin Transfer Moulding Process
,” Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf.
, 33
(11
), pp. 1497
–1503
. 33.
Lucio
, B.
, and de la Fuente
, J. L.
, 2014
, “Rheological Cure Characterization of an Advanced Functional Polyurethane
,” Thermochim. Acta
, 596
, pp. 6
–13
. 34.
Keller
, A.
, Masania
, K.
, Taylor
, A. C.
, and Dransfeld
, C.
, 2016
, “Fast-Curing Epoxy Polymers With Silica Nanoparticles: Properties and Rheo-Kinetic Modelling
,” J. Mater. Sci.
, 51
(1
), pp. 236
–251
. 35.
Geissberger
, R.
, Maldonado
, J.
, Bahamonde
, N.
, Keller
, A.
, Dransfeld
, C.
, and Masania
, K.
, 2017
, “Rheological Modelling of Thermoset Composite Processing
,” Compos. B. Eng.
, 124
, pp. 182
–189
. 36.
Herceg
, T. M.
, Yoon
, S.-H.
, Abidin
, M. S. Z.
, Greenhalgh
, E. S.
, Bismarck
, A.
, and Shaffer
, M. S. P. P.
, 2016
, “Thermosetting Nanocomposites With High Carbon Nanotube Loadings Processed by a Scalable Powder Based Method
,” Compos. Sci. Technol.
, 127
, pp. 62
–70
. 37.
Ozeren Ozgul
, E.
, and Ozkul
, M. H.
, 2018
, “Effects of Epoxy, Hardener, and Diluent Types on the Workability of Epoxy Mixtures
,” Constr. Build Mater.
, 158
, pp. 369
–377
. 38.
Pascual
, C.
, De Castro
, J.
, Schueler
, A.
, Vassilopoulos
, A. P.
, and Keller
, T.
, 2014
, “Total Light Transmittance of Glass Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Laminates for Multifunctional Load-Bearing Structures
,” J. Compos. Mater.
, 48
(29
), pp. 3591
–3604
. 39.
Zobeiry
, N.
, Lee
, A.
, and Mobuchon
, C.
, 2020
, “Fabrication of Transparent Advanced Composites
,” Compos. Sci. Technol.
, 197
, p. 108281
. 40.
Dunkers
, J. P.
, Parnas
, R. S.
, Zimba
, C. G.
, Peterson
, R. C.
, Flynn
, K. M.
, Fujimoto
, J. G.
, and Bouma
, B. E.
, 1999
, “Optical Coherence Tomography of Glass Reinforced Polymer Composites
,” Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf.
, 30
(2
), pp. 139
–145
. 41.
Rauf
, A.
, Hand
, R. J.
, and Hayes
, S. A.
, 2014
, “Modifying the Refractive Index of Epoxy Resins Using Reactive Diluents to Enable Optical Self-Sensing in E-Glass Fibre Composites
,” Appl. Mech. Mater.
, 625
, pp. 90
–93
. 42.
Lin
, H.
, Day
, D. E.
, Weaver
, K. D.
, and Stoffer
, J. O.
, 1994
, “Temperature and Wavelength Dependent Transmission of Optically Transparent Glass Fibre Poly (Methyl Methacrylate) Composites
,” J. Mater. Sci.
, 29
(19
), pp. 5193
–5198
. 43.
Gutowski
, T. G.
, Morigaki
, T.
, and Cai
, Z.
, 1987
, “The Consolidation of Laminate Composites
,” J. Compos. Mater.
, 21
(2
), pp. 172
–188
. 44.
Kelly
, P. A.
, Umer
, R.
, and Bickerton
, S.
, 2006
, “Viscoelastic Response of Dry and Wet Fibrous Materials During Infusion Processes
,” Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf.
, 37
(6 SPEC. ISS.
), pp. 868
–873
. 45.
Nedanov
, P. B.
, and Advani
, S. G.
, 2002
, “Numerical Computation of the Fiber Preform Permeability Tensor by the Homogenization Method
,” Polym. Compos.
, 23
(5
), pp. 758
–770
. 46.
Endruweit
, A.
, Zeng
, X.
, Matveev
, M.
, and Long
, A. C.
, 2018
, “Effect of Yarn Cross-Sectional Shape on Resin Flow Through Inter-Yarn Gaps in Textile Reinforcements
,” Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf.
, 104
, pp. 139
–150
. 47.
Gojny
, F. H.
, Wichmann
, M. H. G. G.
, Fiedler
, B.
, Bauhofer
, W.
, and Schulte
, K.
, 2005
, “Influence of Nano-Modification on the Mechanical and Electrical Properties of Conventional Fibre-Reinforced Composites
,” Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf.
, 36
(11
), pp. 1525
–1535
. 48.
Reia da Costa
, E. F.
, Skordos
, A. A.
, Partridge
, I. K.
, and Rezai
, A.
, 2012
, “RTM Processing and Electrical Performance of Carbon Nanotube Modified Epoxy/Fibre Composites
,” Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf.
, 43
(4
), pp. 593
–602
. 49.
Domingues
, D.
, Logakis
, E.
, and Skordos
, A. A.
, 2012
, “The Use of an Electric Field in the Preparation of Glass Fibre/Epoxy Composites Containing Carbon Nanotubes
,” Carbon N. Y.
, 50
(7
), pp. 2493
–2503
. 50.
Gao
, L.
, Chou
, T.-W.
, Thostenson
, E. T.
, Godara
, A.
, Zhang
, Z.
, and Mezzo
, L.
, 2010
, “Highly Conductive Polymer Composites Based on Controlled Agglomeration of Carbon Nanotubes
,” Carbon N. Y.
, 48
(9
), pp. 2649
–2651
. 51.
Gnidakouong
, J. R. N.
, Roh
, H. D.
, Kim
, J.-H.
, and Park
, Y.-B.
, 2016
, “In Situ Assessment of Carbon Nanotube Flow and Filtration Monitoring Through Glass Fabric Using Electrical Resistance Measurement
,” Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf.
, 90
, pp. 137
–146
Copyright © 2023 by ASME
You do not currently have access to this content.
